Apuntes de inglés/English notes

Blog destinado a recopilar el máximo de apuntes de inglés e intentar ordenarlos de la manera más útil posible...

Blog destined to compile as much English notes and trying to order by the most useful way possible...

By Raül Montejano Gutiérrez; Twitter @raulmontejanogu

lunes, 28 de mayo de 2012

Scottish Slang



Here is a very nice video, easy to understanding, very funny and well explained; and a dictionary about scottish slang (also a folder with scottish proverbs).

Enjoy the first delivery about slangs!

http://www.firstfoot.com/dictionary


Do you have any suggestion for the next one?

sábado, 26 de mayo de 2012

Relative clauses

Relative clauses give extra information about something or someone in the main clause.


Defining relative clauses

Defining relative clauses contain information which is essential for our understanding of the whole sentence.
The woman who normally comes to clean our windows is on holiday this month.
In each case, the relative clause identifies which person or thing is being talked about.

Features of defining relative clauses.
- No comas are required either at the beginning or the end of the relative clause.
- That can be used instead of who for people and which for things, particulary in spoken English.


For people For things
Subject who/that which/that
Object who/that/whom which/that
Possessive whose whose


*whom is more formal than who

- The relative pronoun can be omitted if it is the object of the verb in the relative clause.
I'm enjoying the book (which/that) you lent me.
- The realtive pronoun cannot be omitted if it is the subject of the verb in the relative clause.
That's the shop assistant who/that served me the last time I came here.


Non-defining relative clauses.

Non-defining relative clauses contain information which is not essential for our understanding of the sentence. We can identify which person or thing is being talked about without the information in the relative clause.
Their new palace, which has five bedrooms and a games room, is much larger than their previous one.

Features of non-defining relative clauses
- Commas are required both at the beginning and the end of the relative clause (except when the end of the relative clause is also the end of the sentence).
- That cannot be used in place of who or which.


For people For things
Subject who which
Object who/whom which
Possessive whose whose


- Relative pronouns cannot be omitted from non-defining relative clauses.
Her english teacher, who/whom everyone in the class adored, announced that he was leaving the school.
- Non-defining relative clauses are more common in written English.
- Which can be used in non-defining relative clauses to refer to a whole clause.
No one phoned him on his birthday, which made him feel rather depressed.


Relative clauses and prepositions

Prepositions usually come at the end of defining and non-defining relative clauses.
In defining relative clauses the relative pronoun is usually omitted.
The town I grew up in has changed a lot since I left.
In non-defining relative clauses the relative pronoun is never omitted.
Mark Ralf, who I used to work with, lives in Berlin now.

In more formal English, prepositions often come before the relative pronouns whom for people and which for things (in which case the pornoun cannot be omitted).
The head waiter, to whom we addressed our complaint, was not particularly helpful.


Relative adverbs: where, when and why.

Where, when and why can be used in relative clauses after nouns which refer to a place, a time or a reason.

Where has the meaning "in/at which"
Defining: They've booked a week in that campsite where we stayed last year.
Non-defining: He's in Southlands Hospital, where you were born.

When has the meaning "on/in which" and can be omitted in defining relative clauses.
Defining: Do you remember that day (when) we went to Berlin and it snowed?
Non-defining: I'm going on holiday in October; when most people are back at work.

Why has the meaning "for which" and can be omitted in defining relative clauses.
Defining: The reason (why) I'm phoning is to ask you for Anne's address.

Causative have: "to have something done"

The structure have+object+past participle shows that the action is done for the subject by someone else and not by the subject. The subject causes the action to be done. Compare the following:
I cut my hair. (= I did myself)
I had my hair cut. (= someone did it for me)
All tenses of have are possible, ex.:
We've just had our washing machine repaired.
I'm having my eyes tested tomorrow.

The same structure can also be used for events (usually unpleasant) which are outside of the speaker's control.
John had his car stolen last week.

Get can be used instead of have in this structure. It is slightly more informal.
Where did you get your photos developed?

viernes, 18 de mayo de 2012

How to learn English - Education Infographics and Data Visualizations

Some interesting infographics about education, especially with details from United States of America.

http://visual.ly/category/education


One of these infographics is "How to learn English", with good advices and statistics about the study and the improvement of English language.

http://visual.ly/how-learn-english


Education UK

Inside this web site you'll find all about all kind of studies in United Kingdom: institutions, universities and schools, scholarships, kind of qualifications, applications, ...

http://www.educationuk.org/

Rowan Atkinson Live - "In Hell" & "Elementary dating"


Too and enough

Too means "more than is necessary or desirable".

Too + adjective/adverb
This jumper's too big. Can I try a smaller size?

Too much/Too many (+noun)
I can't eat this. There's too much salt in it.
There are too many people there. Let's go outside.

Too + adverb/adjective (+ for + object) + infinitive
It's too cold to play football today.
He spoke too quickly for me to understand her.


Enough means "as much as is necessary"

Adjective/adverb + enough 
Are you warm enough or shall I turn the heating on?

Enough + noun
We'll have to stand because there aren't enough chairs.

Enough (+ for + object) + infinitive with to
I haven't got enough time to see you today.

viernes, 11 de mayo de 2012

Let and make

Both these verbs are followed by the infinitive without to.

Let is used to express permission. My dad never lets me watch this movie.


Let is not normally used in the passive. Be allowed to is used instead. I wasn't allowed to go to the party alone.

Make is used to express obligation. The teacher made her do some extra homework.

In the passive, make is followed by the infinitive with to. He was made to pay for the window he had broken.

Permission

To express permission it is possible to use can, may (more formal) or be allowed to. In the negative these express lack of permission, or prohibition.
You can order another drink but you can't have any more hamburgers. 
We aren't allowed to wear trainers to school.

May is not possible in the past. Could and be allowed to are possible for general permission.
In my last job we had flexitime so we could arrive more or less when we wanted to.

Could is not used when referring to a particular situation in the past. Only be allowed to is possible.
I was allowed to stay up late last night.

Obligation and necessity

Must/mustn't + infinitive without to

Must is used:
for strong obligations imposed by the speaker. The speaker uses must to express his/her authority. You must be here by 8 am.
to give strong advice. It's a great film. You really must go and see it.
to tell oneself what is necessary. I must remember to phone Tim.

Must not or mustn't is used:
to talk about something that is not permitted. Passengers must not smoke on the aircraft.
to give strong advice. You mustn't work too hard. You'll make yourself ill.

Past form
Must does not have past form. Had to is therefore used to refer to the past. We had to write a formal letter in the exam. 

Question form
Must is possible in question forms. Must you wear that horrible dress?
although have to is more common. What do we have to do for homework?


Have to/Don't have to

Have to is used to refer to strong obligations imposed by another person rather than by the speaker or writer. I have to be at work by 8 o'clock. The boss will get angry if I'm late.


Need to/Don't need to/Needn't 

Need to is used to express necessity. Can we go to the baker's next? I need to get some bread.


Should/Shouldn't + infinitive without to

Should and shouldn't are used to express obligation or give advice. Ought to can also be used with the same meaning as should. You ought to/should see a doctor about your headache.


Be supposed to/Had better

Be supposed to is used to talk about what you should do because of a rule or because it is expected. Come on, it's 10 o'clock. You're supposed to be in bed!

Had better + infinitive without to is used to talk about what you should do because you think it's a good idea. You'd better ask your dad before you borrow the car.

miércoles, 2 de mayo de 2012

Monty Python - Four Yorkshiremen


Past tenses

The Past Simple is used to refer to:

Completed actions which happened at a specific time. I went to the cinema last week.
Completed actions and simulations which happened over a specific period of time. I lived and studied in Germany for three years.
Habitual actions or behaviour in the past. We played basketball in the street when I was a child.
A series of consecutive events in the past. He kissed her, said goodbye and closed the door.


The Past Continuous is used to refer to:

Temporary activities or situations in progress at a particular moment in the past. This time last week we were sitting on the beach.
A past activity or situation which was already in progress when another action ocurred (the activity or situation in progress may or may not continue). I was reading to my daughter when the lights went out.
Activities or situations occurring at the same time. Ann was cutting the grass while I was cooking.
The background events in a narrative. It was snowing heavily and a cold wind was blowing


The Past Perfect is used to:

Show that a past action or situation occurred before another past action or situation. When I saw Tom, he had just passed his driving test.
We used the continuous form to enphasize the duration of the first past action or situation. She had been waiting  for over two hours when he phoned to say he couldn't come.


Time linkers:

The past perfect is often used with time linkers. ex: after, before, by the time, as soon as, once, when, until. I couldn't go out until I had done my homework.

The past simple can be used if the order of events is clear. He sold his house before he left the country. Or if the second event occurred as a result of the first. When I realized what time it was, I ran outside.

After/afterwards. 
After is used to show the order of two or more events in the same sentence. Afterwards means "after that" and can go at the beginning or the end of a clause.

At last/in the end/at the end.
At last suggest that something good happends after a long period of time or more than one attempt.
In the end has a similar meaning and may also suggest there have been one or more changes or problems. They result may be good or bad.
At the end means at the point when something finishes.

When/as/while.
These can all be used with the past continuous to introduce an action which was already in progress when another action occurred.

During/in/for.
These are all used as prepositions when referring to time, and are followed by a noun. During and in are used to say when something happened. For is used to say how long something took or lasted.