Phrasal verbs

Group 1: no object - verb and particle can't be separated.
Come one! Hurry up! We're late.
The plane took off two hours late.

Group 2: with object - verb and particle can't be separated.
I'm looking for my phone.
I look after the baby.
I don't get on with my sister.

Group 3: with object - verb and particle can be separated.
Please switch off your phone. Please switch your phone off. Please switch it off.
They've set up a new company. They've set a new company up. They've set it up.


A phrasal verb is a verb combined with a particle (= an adverb or preposition).
Sometimes the meaning of the phrasal verb is obvius form the verb and the particle. (ex. sit down)
Sometimes the meaning is not obvius. (ex. give up smoking = stop smoking).
In group 3, where the verb and particle con be separated, if the object is a pronoun, it must go between the verb and particle. (ex. switch it off)

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Sometimes a phrasal verbs has more than one meaning.
The plane took off. (despegar)
He took off his shoes. (quitarse)

Question tags, Indirect questions

Question tags

Positive verb, negative tag	Negative verb, positive tag
It's cold today, isn't it?	She isn't here today, is she?
You're Polish, aren't you?	You aren't happy, are you?
They live in Ankara, don't they?	They don't smoke, do they?
The match finishes at 8.00, doesn't it?	She doesn't eat meat, does she?
She worked in a bank, didn't she?	You didn't like the film, did you?
We've met before, haven't we?	She hasn't been to Rome before, has she?
You'll be OK, won't you?	You won't tell anyone, will you?

Question tags are often used to check something you already think is true.
To form a question tag use:
the correct auxiliary verb.
a pronoun
a negative tag if the sentences is positive, ans a positive tag if the sentence is negative.


Indirect questions

Direct question	Indirect question
Where's the bank?	Could you tell me where the bank is?
What time do the shops close?	Do you know what time the shops close?
Is there a bus stop near here?	Do you know if there's a bus stop near here?
Does this train go to Victoria?	Could you tell me if this train goes to Victoria?

To make a question more polite we often begin Could you tell me...? or Do you know...? The word order changes to subject + verb. Do you know where the bus station is?
If the question begins with an auxiliary verb, add if after Could you tell me...?/Do you know...?
We also use this structure after Can you remember...?

Third Conditional

Third Conditional sentences:
If + had + past participle, would + have + past participle.

Use third conditional sentences to talk about a hypothetical/imaginary situation in the past (which didn't happen) and its consequence.
Compare:
Yesterday, I got up late and missed my bus. (= the real situation)
If I hadn't got up late yesterday, I wouldn't have missed my bus. (= the hypothetical/imaginary situation)
To make a third conditional, use if + past perfect and would + have + past participle.
The contraction of had is 'd.
You wouldn't have been late if you'd got up earlier.

Relative clauses

Defining relative clauses.

To give important information about a person, place, or thing use a relative clause (= a relative pronoun + subject + verb).

Use the relative pronouns
Who for people
Which for things
Where for places
Whose to mean of who/of which.

You can use that instead of who or which.

Who, which, and that can be omitted when the verbs in the main clause and the relative clause have a different subject.
He's the man I met on the plane. (The subject of met is I, so it's not necessary to put who.)


Non-defining relative clauses.

If a relative clause gives extra, non-essential information (the sentences makes sense without it), you must put it between commas (or a comma and a full stop).
This painting, which was painted in 1860, is worth 2000 euros.

In these clauses, you can't leave out the relative pronoun (who, which, etc.)
Burford, where my brother was born, is a beautiful town.

In these clauses, you can't use that instead of who/which.

The passive: be + past participle

We often use the passive when it's not clear or important who does an action.
My bike has been stolen (= Somebody has stolen my bike. I don't know who.)

If you want to say who did the action, use by.
Death in Venice was directed by Visconti.

Reported speech: Commands

Direct speech	Reported speech
Go away.	She told him to go away.
Don't worry.	The doctor told me not to worry.
Can/could you help me?	I asked the shop assitant to help me.

To report an imperative or request, use told or asked + person + the infinitive with to.
To report a negative imperative, use a negative infinitive.

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You can't use said in these sentences.

Reported speech: Statements and questions

Direct statements	Reported statements
I like shopping.	She said (that) she liked shopping.
I'm going tomorrow.	He told her he was going the next day.
I'll always love you.	He said he would always love me.
I passed the exam!	She told him she had passed the exam.
I've forgotten my keys.	He said he had forgotten his keys.
I can't come.	She said she couldn't come.
I may be late.	He said she might be late.
I must go.	She said she had to go.

Tenses usually change like this:
present - past
will - would
past simple / present perfect - past perfect
Some modal verbs change:
can - could
may - might
must - had to

Direct questions	Reported questions
Are you married?	She asked him if he was married.
Did she phone?	He asked me whether she had phoned.
What's your name?	I asked him what his name was.
Where do you live?	They asked me where I lived.

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Must - had to ----------- Mustn't - mustn't

You usually have to change the pronouns.
I like... --- She said she like...
Using that after said and told is optional.
If you report what someone said on a different day or in a different place, some time and place words change
tomorrow - the next day
here - there
this - that

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After said don't use a person or object pronoun.
He said he was tired. NOT He said me...
After told you must use a person or pronoun.
He told me he was tired. NOT He told he was...

When you report a question, the tenses change as in reported statements.
When a question begins with a verb (not a question word), add if (or whether).
You also have to change the word order to subject + verb, and not use do/did.

Gerunds and infinitives

Use the gerund (verb+ing)
After prepositions and phrasal verbs. She's given up smoking.
As the subject of a sentences. Eating out is quite cheap here.
After some verbs (ex. hate, spend, don't mind). I don't mind getting up early.

Use infinitive (+ to)
After adjectives. My flat is easy to find.
To express a reason or purpose. He's saving money to buy a new car.
After some verbs. (ex. want, need, learn). She's never learn to drive.

Use the infinitive (without to)
After most model and auxiliary verbs. I can't drive. We must hurry.
After make and let. My parents don't let me go out.

Gerunds and infinitives form the negative with not. not to be, not being.
More verbs take the infinitive than the gerund.
These common verbs can take either the gerund or infinitive with no difference in meaning: begin, continue, prefer, start.

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These verbs can take a gerund or infinitive but the meaning is different:
Try to be on time = make an effort to be on time.
Try doing yoga = do it to see if you like it.
Remember to phone him = don't forget to do it.
I remember meeting him years ago = I have a memory of it.

Articles: a/an, the, no article

Use a / an with singular countable nouns.
The first time you mention a thing/person. I saw an old man with a dog.
When you say what something is. It's a nice day.
When you say that somebody knows. She's a lawyer.
In exclamations with What...! What a wonderful day!
In expressions like... three times a week

Use the
When we talk about something we've already mentioned. I saw an old man with a dog, and the dog was barking.
When there's only one of something. The moon goes round the earth.
When it's clear what you're referring to. He opened the door.
With places in a town. I'm going to the theater.
With superlatives. It's the best restaurant in town.

Don't use the
When you are speaking in general (with plural and uncountable nouns). Women talk more than men.
With some nouns after at / to / from. She's not at home today.
Before meals, days and months. I never have breakfast on Sundays.
Before next / last + days, week, etc. See you next Friday.

Quantifiers

Large quantities
Use a lot of / lots of in (+) sentences
They have a lot of books.
She has lots of friends.
Use a lot when there is no noun. He studies a lot.
Much / many are normally used  in (-) sentences and (?), but a lot of can also be used.
There aren't many cafés near here.
Do you watch much TV?
Use plenty of in (+) sentences to mean as much as we need or more.
Don't run. We have plenty of time.

Small quantities
Use little + uncountable nouns, few + plural countable nouns.
Do you want some ice cream? Just a little.
The town only has a few cinemas.
A little and a few = some, but not a lot,
Very little and very few = not much / many.
Hurry up. We have very little time.
I have very few close friends.

Zero quantity
Use any for zero quantity with a (-) verb. Use no with a (+) verb.
There isn't any room in the car.
There's no room in the car.
Use none (without a noun) in short answers.
How much money do you have? None.

More than you need or want / less than you need
Use too + adjective, too much + uncountable nou, too many + plural countable nouns.
There's too much traffic.
Use enough before a noun but after an adjective.
There aren't enough pubs.

Usually and Use to

Present habits and states.
I usually get up at 8.00 on school days.
Past habits and states.
I used to go out with that girl when I was at school.

For present habits use usually or normally + present simple.
For past habits use used to / didn't use to + infinitive. Used to doesn't exist in the present tense.
We use used to for things that were true over a period of time in the past. It usually refers to something which is not true now.
Used to / didn't use to can be used with actions verbs (wear, go, ...) and non-action verbs (be, have, ...)
We often use not ... any more / any longer with the present simple to contrast with used to. I used to go to the gym but I don't any more/any longer.

Second conditional

Second conditional sentences: if + past simple, would/wouldn't + infinitive
Use the second conditional to talk about a hypotetical/imaginary situation in the present or future and its consequence.
Compare:
Real situation: I don't have much money, so I can't buy a bigger house.
Hypotetical situation: If I had money, I'd buy a bigger house.
Use the second conditionals beginning If I were you, I'd ... to give advice. Here you can't use If I was you.

Would / wouldn't + infinitive
You can also use would / wouldn't + infinitive (without an if clause) when you talk about imaginary situations.
My ideal holiday would be a week in the Bahamas.
The contraction of would is 'd.

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Remember the difference between first and second conditional:
If I have time, I'll help you. A possible situation. I may have time.
If I had time, I'd help you. An imaginary/hypotetical situation. I don't / won't have time.

First conditional and future time clauses + when, until, etc.

First conditional sentences: if (or unless) + present simple, will/won't + infinitive

Use the present tense (Not the future) after if in first conditional tenses. If you don't do more work, you'll fail the exam.

Unless = If ... not. I won't go unless she invites me. I won't go if she doesn't invite me.

You can also use an imperative instead of the will clause. Come and see us next week if you have time.

Future time clauses

Use the present simple (Not the future) after when, as soon as, until, before and after to talk about the future.

I'll call you as soon as I arrive.

We'll have dinner when your father gets home.

I won't go to bed until you come home.

I'll have lunch before I leae.

After I finish university, I'll probably take a year off and travel.

Can, could, be able to (ability and possibility) II

Más información y ejercicios sobre estos modal verbs:

http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs-modals_can.htm

http://elblogdelingles.blogspot.com/2006/05/lesson-17-can-could-and-be-able-to.html

http://www.autoenglish.org/gr.can.i.htm

Can, could, be able to (ability and possibility)

Can / Could
I can speak Spanish very well.
She could play the violin when she was three.
Could you open that door, please?
Can is a modal verb. It only has a present, past, and conditional form (but can also be used with a future meaning).
For other tenses and forms use be able to.

Be able to + Infinitive
I am able to accept your invitation.
They weren't able to come.
I'll be able to practise my English in London.
I'd like to be able to ski.
You can use be able to in the present, past, future, present perfect, and as a gerund or infinitive.
Be able to in the present and past is more formal than can/could.

Must, may, might, can't (deduction)

When you are sure something is true: must
They must be out. There aren't any light on.

When you think something is possibly true: may/might
His phone's switched off. He might be on the plane now.
He hasn't written. He may not have my address.

When you are sure something is impossible / not true: can't
He can't be ill. I saw him at the gym.
They can't be Italian. They're speaking to each other in English.

We often use must, may/might, and can't to say how sure or certain we are about something (based on the information we have).
In this context, the opposite of must is can't, not musn't.

Must, have to, should (obligation)

obligation / necessity: have to / must (infinitive)
Must and have to have a very similar meaning.
Have to is more common for general, external obligations, for example rules and laws.
Must is more common for specific or personal obligations.
Compare: I have to wear a shirt and tie at work (It's the rule in this company). I must buy a new shirt - this one is too old now (It's my own decision).
Have to is a normal verb and it exists in all tenses.
Must is a modal verb. The only forms are must and mustn't.
You can also use have to or must for strong recommendations. You have to/must see that film. It's fantastic.

no obligation / necessity: don't have to. ---- prohibition: mustn't (+ infinitive)
Don't have to and mustn't are completely different.
Compare: You mustn't drive along this street (It's prohibited, against the law). You don't have to drive - We can get a train (You can drive if you want to but it's not necessary/obligatory).
You can often use can't or not allowed to instead of mustn't.

advice or opinion: should/shouldn't (+infinitive)
Should is not as strong as must/have to. We use it to say if we think something is the right or wrong thing to do.
Should is a modal verb. The only form are should or shouldn't.
You can also use ought to and ought not to instead of should/shouldn't.

Comparatives and superlatives

Comparing two things (or actions)
Regular comparatives adjectives/adverbs:
hard/harder, big/bigger, easy/easier, modern/more modern,
Irregular comparative adjectives/adverbs:
good-well/better, bad-badly/worse, far/furhter
After than or as we can use an object pronoun me, him, her, etc. or a subject pronoun (I, he, she) + auxiliary verb: She's taller than me or She's taller than I am.

Superlatives
Form superlatives like comparatives but use -est or most/least(lo más mínimo).
You normally use the before superlative, but you can also use possessive adjectives: Their most famous song.

Present perfect continuous

Present continuous for unfinished actions
Have/Has been + Verb+ing
Use the present perfect continuous with for and since with action verbs.
How long have you been learning Spanish?
He's been studying here since September.
They've been going out together for four years.

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With non-action verbs (know, be, etc.) use the present perfect simple, NOT the present perfect continuous. with for and since. I've known her for ages. NOT I've been knowing her for ages.
With live and work you can use the present perfect simple or continuous with for and since. I've been living here for six months. I've lived here for six months.

Present perfect continuous for recent continuous actions
Use the present perfect continuous for actions which have been going on very recently. They have usually just stopped.
Your eyes are red. Have you been crying? No, I've been cutting onion.

Present perfect and past simple

Present perfect: have/has + past participle (studied, been, ...)
Past experiences.
I've been to London, but I haven't been to Paris.
She's never met his ex-wife.
Have you ever lost your mobile?
We often use ever and never when we ask or talk about past experiences. They go BEFORE the main verb.
Recent past actions.
He's just arrived at the room.
With yet and already (for emphasis)
I've already done my homework. 
Have you finished yet?
My brother hasn't found a new job yet.
Just and already go BEFORE the main verb in positive sentences, yet goes AT THE END of the phrase in negative sentences and questions.
Unfinished states (non-action verbs) which start in the past and are still true now.
They've known each other for 10 years.
How long have they been married? Since 2003.
Use How long...? + present perfect to ask about an unfinished period of time (from the past until now).
Use for+a period of time, or since with a point of time.

Present perfect or past simple?
Use the present perfect when there is a connection between the past and the present.
Use the past simple to ask or talk about finished actions in the past, when the time is mentioned or understood. We often use a past time expression.
I've been to Barcelona twice.(= in my life up to now) I went there in 1997 and 2009. (= on two specific occasions)
How long have you been married to Jane? (= you are married to Jane now) How long were you married to Jane? (= you are not married to Jane now)
I've bought a new computer. (= I don't say exactly when) I bought it on Friday. (= I say when)