Relative clauses

Defining relative clauses.

To give important information about a person, place, or thing use a relative clause (= a relative pronoun + subject + verb).

Use the relative pronouns
Who for people
Which for things
Where for places
Whose to mean of who/of which.

You can use that instead of who or which.

Who, which, and that can be omitted when the verbs in the main clause and the relative clause have a different subject.
He's the man I met on the plane. (The subject of met is I, so it's not necessary to put who.)


Non-defining relative clauses.

If a relative clause gives extra, non-essential information (the sentences makes sense without it), you must put it between commas (or a comma and a full stop).
This painting, which was painted in 1860, is worth 2000 euros.

In these clauses, you can't leave out the relative pronoun (who, which, etc.)
Burford, where my brother was born, is a beautiful town.

In these clauses, you can't use that instead of who/which.

The passive: be + past participle

We often use the passive when it's not clear or important who does an action.
My bike has been stolen (= Somebody has stolen my bike. I don't know who.)

If you want to say who did the action, use by.
Death in Venice was directed by Visconti.

Reported speech: Commands

Direct speech	Reported speech
Go away.	She told him to go away.
Don't worry.	The doctor told me not to worry.
Can/could you help me?	I asked the shop assitant to help me.

To report an imperative or request, use told or asked + person + the infinitive with to.
To report a negative imperative, use a negative infinitive.

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You can't use said in these sentences.

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Reported speech: Statements and questions

Direct statements	Reported statements
I like shopping.	She said (that) she liked shopping.
I'm going tomorrow.	He told her he was going the next day.
I'll always love you.	He said he would always love me.
I passed the exam!	She told him she had passed the exam.
I've forgotten my keys.	He said he had forgotten his keys.
I can't come.	She said she couldn't come.
I may be late.	He said she might be late.
I must go.	She said she had to go.

Tenses usually change like this:
present - past
will - would
past simple / present perfect - past perfect
Some modal verbs change:
can - could
may - might
must - had to

Direct questions	Reported questions
Are you married?	She asked him if he was married.
Did she phone?	He asked me whether she had phoned.
What's your name?	I asked him what his name was.
Where do you live?	They asked me where I lived.

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Must - had to ----------- Mustn't - mustn't

You usually have to change the pronouns.
I like... --- She said she like...
Using that after said and told is optional.
If you report what someone said on a different day or in a different place, some time and place words change
tomorrow - the next day
here - there
this - that

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After said don't use a person or object pronoun.
He said he was tired. NOT He said me...
After told you must use a person or pronoun.
He told me he was tired. NOT He told he was...

When you report a question, the tenses change as in reported statements.
When a question begins with a verb (not a question word), add if (or whether).
You also have to change the word order to subject + verb, and not use do/did.

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Gerunds and infinitives

Use the gerund (verb+ing)
After prepositions and phrasal verbs. She's given up smoking.
As the subject of a sentences. Eating out is quite cheap here.
After some verbs (ex. hate, spend, don't mind). I don't mind getting up early.

Use infinitive (+ to)
After adjectives. My flat is easy to find.
To express a reason or purpose. He's saving money to buy a new car.
After some verbs. (ex. want, need, learn). She's never learn to drive.

Use the infinitive (without to)
After most model and auxiliary verbs. I can't drive. We must hurry.
After make and let. My parents don't let me go out.

Gerunds and infinitives form the negative with not. not to be, not being.
More verbs take the infinitive than the gerund.
These common verbs can take either the gerund or infinitive with no difference in meaning: begin, continue, prefer, start.

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These verbs can take a gerund or infinitive but the meaning is different:
Try to be on time = make an effort to be on time.
Try doing yoga = do it to see if you like it.
Remember to phone him = don't forget to do it.
I remember meeting him years ago = I have a memory of it.