Daily Video Vocab.

Here is a very interesting link for videos on youtube. Easy to understanding, well explained and with words and expressions very useful.
(I put this link, but looking within the page you will be able to find other links to other lessons.)

http://www.youtube.com/channel/SW3RtKQOy0lLE

Thanks a lot to Paulo for this info! ^_^

Direct and reported speech

When reporting what someone has said or written we can use either direct speech or reported speech.
When we use direct speech we report the exact words which someone has used.
"I'm staying here tomorrow" said John.
When we use reported speech, changes may have to be made to verb tenses, pronouns and certain words indicating place and time.
John said she was staying there the next day.

- Reporting statements.

The following changes are usually made to verbs. In each case the verb "moves back" one tense.

Direct speech	Reported speech
Present simple	Past Simple
I work in an office, he said	He said he worked in an office
Present Continuous	Past Continuous
We are going away on holiday, she said.	She said they were going away on holiday.
Present Perfect	Past Perfect
I've known her for a long time, he said.	He said he'd known her for a long time.
Present Perfect Continuous	Past Perfect Continuous
He's been playing tennis, he said.	He said he had been playing tennis.
Past Simple	Past Perfect
I saw Nigel in town, he said.	He said that he'd seen Nigel in town.
Past Continuous	Past Perfect Continuous
We were trying to help him, she said.	She said they'd been trying to help him.
The modal verbs will, must, may and can change to would, had to, might and could.

No changes are made in the verb tense:
a) If the verb in the direct speech is in the past perfect.
He had never spoken about it before, he said.
b) If the direct speech contains one of the following modal verbs: would, might, could, should, ought to.
You should go to the doctor's, she said.
c) If the statement being reported is still true.
I like fish, she said.
d) If the reporting verb is in the present.
It's 40º in Athens at the moment. (Ron to his father on the phone)

Pronouns in direct speech may have to change when we use reported speech.
I'll see you soon, said Peter. - Peter said he would see me soon.

The following changes may also need to be made to words indicating place and time.

Direct speech	Reported speech
Now	Then
Today	That day
This morning	That morning
tomorrow	The next/Following day
Next week	The next/Following week
Yesterday	The day before, the previous day
Two days ago	two days before/earlier
Last week	The week before, the previous week
here	there
Come	Go

This, that, these and those may change to the.
That book you lent me is really boring, he said. - Ha said the book I had lent him was really boring.

- Reporting verbs for statements.

Tell is used with a direct object.
He told me he was getting married.

Say and explain are used without direct object.
He said he was ill. (not He told me)

Some reporting verbs can be used with an infinitive.
a) Verb + Object noun/pronoun + infinitive without to
advice, ask, encourage, invite, recommend, remind, urge, warn, ...
Don't forget to phone Jim. - He reminded her to phone Jim.
b) Verb + infinitive with to
offer, promise, refuse, threaten, ...
I'll help you mend the car if you like. - He offered to help me mend the car.

The following patterns can be used after both recommend and suggest:
He recommended/suggested (that) I (should) eat less sugar.
She recommended/suggested joining a youth club.
The infinitive with to can only be used after recommend.

- Reporting questions

When we report questions we make the same changes to verb tenses, pronouns and words indicating place and time as we do when we report statements. The following changes are also made:
Auxiliary verbs: auxiliary verbs do, does and did are ommited.
Word order: is the same as that of a statement.
Punctuation: question marks are not used.
Yes/No questions: if there is no question word (what, where, who, etc) in the direct question, we use if or whether. Does she smoke? He asked if/whether she smoke.

Ask and Tell
Each of these verbs can be used in two different ways in reported speech.
Ask:
a) Requests (ask + object + infinitive with to)
Can you help me, please? - She asked me to help her.
b) Questions
Can you ride a horse? - She asked me if I could ride a horse.
Tell:
a) Commands (tell + object + infinitive with to)
Put your coat on. - He told me to put my coat on.
b) Statement
I can't find my coat. - He told her he couldn't find his coat.

Conditionals

Conditional sentences contain a conditional clause (introduced by words such as if, as long as and unless) and a main clause.
If the conditional clause comes before the main clause, a comma is needed (as in this sentence).
A comma is not needed if the conditional clause comes after the main clause (as in this sentence).

Zero Conditional
if + present simple or imperative
We use the zero conditional to talk about situations which are always true. If has the same meaning as when, whenever or every time in such sentences.
Everyday situations: My eyes hurt if I spend too long on the laptop.
Scientific facts: If you mix blue and yellow, you get green.
Instructions (if+imperative): If you don't know the answer, make an intelligent guess.

First Conditional
if + present simple, will + infinitive without to
We use the first conditional to talk about possible situations and their probable results in the future.
She'll be very happy if you phone her.
It can be used for warning, promises and threats.
I'll send you to bed if you don't behave yourself.
Modal verbs can be used in the main clause in place of will. May, might and could, for example, introduce possible results if a conditional is met.
If I finish my homework early, I might call you.

Second Conditional
if + past simple, would + infinitive without to
We use the second conditional to talk about imaginary, unlikely or impossible situations in the present or future.
If I knew the answer to number six, I would tell you.
First or second conditional? Notice the difference in meaning between these two sentences:
1st Cond. If they give me a pay rise, I'll buy a new car. (I feel there is a real possibility that they will give me a pay rise.)
2nd Cond. If they gave me a pay rise, I'd buy a new car. (I feel it is less likely that they will give me a pray rise.)
The second conditional can also be used to give advice.
If I were you, I'd complain to the manager.
Both was and were are possible in the conditional clause after the subject pronouns I/he/she/it. Was is more common in spoken English.
If he were a little taller, he'd be an excellent goalkeeper.
The modals verbs might and could can be used in the main clause to indicate possible results.
If you worked a bit harder you might have more success.

Third Conditional
if + past perfect, would/might/could have + past participle
We use the third conditional to talk about imaginary situations in the past.
If we hadn't taken a map, we would have got lost. (we took a map, so we didn't get lost.)

Mixed Conditional
if + past perfect, would + infinitive without to
Mixed conditionals are a combination of a second and a third conditional. They can express an imaginary past event and a possible or probable present result.
If you'd listened to my advice, you would not be in this situation now.

Alternative words for if
As long as, provided (that), providing (that) and on condition (that) can be used in place of if to emphasize the condition.
I'll lend you 10€ as long as you give it back tomorrow.

Exercises (Listening)

Here are a lot of listening exercises with different levels.
I've put the link to listening exercises, but inside you'll be able to find A LOT OF exercises also about grammar, reading, links to full cartoon movies, etc.

http://www.agendaweb.org/listening/

Enjoy it!!

So, Neither, Nor

Use
To indicate that we have the same feelings, behaviour or abilities as others, we can use so (positive statements), and neither or nor (negative statements).

Form
so/neither/nor + (modal) auxiliary verb or the verb to be + subject noun or pronoun.
The rules for deciding which verb is used after so, neither or nor are the same as those for questions tags. The verb is always positive. The clause with so, neither or nor can appear in the same sentence as the main clause, or it can be said by a different speaker.
She can't play a musical instrument and nor can I.
I'll phone him tonight. So will I.
My mum isn't working tomorrow. Neither is mine.

If our feelings, behaviour or abilities are different from those of others, we use the following structure:
subject + (modal) auxiliary or the verb to be.
He doesn't eat meat but I do.
We're allowed to wear jeans to school. We aren't.

Past necessity

Needn't have + past participle
This structure is used to talk about an action which was unnecessary. It indicates that the subject performed the action.
I needn't have preparated so much food for the party; everyone had eaten before they came. (I prepared lots of food but I realized afterwards that it wasn't necessary)

Didn't need to + infinitive
This structure is used to talk about an action which was unnecessary. It usually indicates that the subject did not perform the action.
I didn't need to prepare very much food for the party; everyone said they would bring something to eat. (I didn't prepare lots of food as I knew it wasn't necessary)

The passive

Form
The verb to be + past participle.
Present Simple: Goods worth 750M. are stolen from shops each year.
Present Continuous: A man is being questioned in connection with the robbery.
Present Perfect: Photos of the suspects have been put up arround the town.
Past Simple: He was taken away in a van.
Past Continuous: The burglar didn't realize he was being filmed.
Past Perfect: Two people had been mugged there on the previous day.
Future simple: All football supporters will be searched at the airport.
Infinitive: He is hoping to be released from prison next month.
Gerund: I can't even remember being hit on the end.
Modal verbs: He should be sentenced to life imprisonment.

Use
The passive is used to focus attention on the person or thing affected by the action, rather than on the agent (the "doer" of the action). If we are interested in the agent, we used the preposition by.
Sue and Mark were brought up by their parents.
When we talk about the instrument used by the agent to do the action, we use the preposition with.
He was hit on the head with a vase.
The agent is not usually included when:
- It is clear from the context who the agent is.
Colin was arrested for dangerous driving.(by the police)
- We don't know who the agent is or was.
My car was stolen yesterday afternoon.
- When the agent is not important.
Stamps are often sold in supermarkets in England.
- The passive is also used in formal notices.
Food may not be consumed on the premises.

Passive constructions with the infinitive
The infinitive can be used after the passive of verbs such as: believe, consider, expect, know, say, think.
The president is expected to arrive at 9.30 pm.
The perfect infinitive (have+past participle) is used to refer to the past.
12 people are known to have died in the accident.